According to a Greek parable, as a courtier named Damocles feasted on a lavish meal, King Dionysius of Sicily hung a sword above his head by a single horse hair to demonstrate the constant fear he lived with as a powerful but unpopular ruler despite his seemingly enviable lifestyle.
Public DomainA painting of Damocles and Dionysius by Richard Westall, 1812.
If you’ve ever heard someone say the “sword of Damocles” was hanging over their head, they were likely referring to feeling a sense of impending doom, as if catastrophe could strike at any moment. Like many modern expressions, such as having an “Achilles heel,” this phrase has ancient roots, though the exact interpretation of the original meaning has been somewhat warped over the years.
The phrase originated with the writings of the ancient Roman philosopher Cicero (106 to 43 B.C.E.), who shared the anecdotal story of Damocles and the fourth-century tyrant Dionysius, the king of the Sicilian city of Syracuse. In Cicero’s telling, Dionysius lived under the constant threat of assassination due to the many enemies he’d made during his rise to power. As a result, the king lived in constant fear.
When the courtier Damocles spoke with Dionysius, however, he only remarked on the tyrant’s wealth and status as if Dionysius faced no problems of his own. So, to illustrate to Damocles the stress he constantly experienced, Dionysius offered to let Damocles live a day in his life — and with it came a lesson well learned.
The Ancient Story Of Damocles And Dionysius
Cicero first shared the story of Damocles and Dionysius in his 45 B.C.E. book Tusculan Disputations. It tells the tale of the tyrant Dionysius II of Syracuse and his sycophantic courtier Damocles sometime during the fourth or fifth century B.C.E.
Dionysius, as the ruler of Syracuse, was a wealthy and powerful man. However, he also had numerous enemies. As a result, he lived most of his days in fear, worried that an assassin would claim his life or some other ill fate may befall him. He slept in a bedchamber surrounded by a moat, and when he needed to shave, he trusted only his daughters to hold the razor to his throat.
Of course, to an outsider, Dionysius had everything a man could ever dream of: wealth, power, luxury. Few, however, were as blunt in their envy as Damocles.
Heritage Image Partnership Ltd/Alamy Stock PhotoA 17th-century interpretation of the sword of Damocles story by Frans Francken II.
As Cicero wrote, per a translation by Gavin Betts:
“Indeed this tyrant himself gave his judgment as to how fortunate he was. For when one of his flatterers, Damocles, mentioned in conversation the wealth of Dionysius, the majesty of his rule, the abundance of his possessions, the magnificence of the royal palace and denied that there had ever been anyone more fortunate, he said, ‘So, Damocles, since this life delights you, do you wish to taste it yourself and make trial of my fortune?'”
Damocles accepted Dinoysius’ offer. Wasting no time, Dionysius told Damocles to sit on a golden couch covered in a beautifully woven rug. Dionysius then ordered his most beautiful attendants to be at Damocles’ beck and call. As Damocles sat upon his golden throne surrounded by women, fine perfumes, and lavish foods, he felt that he, too, had become a most fortunate man.
Then, Damocles realized a shining sword hung above his head that was fastened to the ceiling by nothing more than a single strand of horse hair. Suddenly, Damocles’ revelry ceased. He could not enjoy the beauty or luxury that surrounded him — he was too focused on the blade that could fall and kill him at any moment.
“Finally,” Cicero wrote, “he begged the tyrant that he should be allowed to depart because he no longer wanted to be fortunate.”
Different Interpretations Of The Sword Of Damocles
Public DomainA fresco of a young Cicero by Vincenzo Foppa, 1464.
The exact message of Cicero’s allegory has been debated over the centuries. It has generally been accepted as some variation of the classic saying, “Don’t judge someone until you’ve walked a mile in their shoes.” For all the luxury Dionysius had, he could appreciate none of it due to the fear that he could be killed at any time.
While the initial intention of Cicero’s tale may have been one of empathy, suggesting that even the most fortunate people may be dealing with personal struggles, the term “sword of Damocles” has evolved over time. Today, the phrase relates more to a looming threat — a budget cut that could cause issues for a business, for example, could be referred to as a sword of Damocles hanging over a CEO’s head. However, some scholars have interpreted Cicero’s work in a more contemporary manner.
Kanye West VEVO/YouTubeKanye West’s teaser video for the song “Power” invokes the image of the sword of Damocles dangling over West’s head.
One analysis by Wim Verbaal, for instance, claims the story of Dionysius II of Syracuse is a prototype of tyranny and a warning for Julius Caesar, one which can “only be understood in its connection to the contemporary political situation, dominated by Caesar’s victory.”
Caesar’s rule of Rome lasted from 46 to 44 B.C.E., and given that Cicero’s work was published squarely in the middle of that reign, it is possible that he intended the story as an example to Caesar, urging him not to make enemies, deny a spiritual life, and fall prey to the pitfalls of tyranny. In other words, Cicero could have been warning Caesar to be mindful of the sword dangling above his neck.
Regardless of its initial meaning, the idiom has been used in many other ways since Cicero popularized it 2,000 years ago.
How The Ancient Idiom Has Been Used Throughout History
Public DomainAn illustration from the satirical publication Puck showing Damocles wearing a crown that says “Industry” standing beneath a sword that reads “Coal Strikes.”
In Cicero’s own words, the moral of the story of Dionysius and Damocles was that “there can be no happiness for one who is under constant apprehensions.” Throughout the medieval period, the motif of the sword of Damocles became fairly common in literature. Geoffrey Chaucer, for instance, references the sword of Damocles in his famous work The Canterbury Tales. As the Knight states in Chaucer’s tale:
“Above, where seated in his tower,
I saw Conquest depicted in his power
There was a sharpened sword above his head
That hung there by the thinnest simple thread.”
Some have also made a connection between elements of the story of Damocles and William Shakespeare’s Henry IV, Part 2, particularly in Shakespeare’s line: “Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.”
In 1961, U.S. president John F. Kennedy used both iterations of the phrase in the same sentence while addressing the United Nations during the Cold War: “Every man, woman, and child lives under a nuclear sword of Damocles, hanging by the slenderest of threads, capable of being cut at any moment by accident or miscalculation or by madness.”
UN Photo/MBPresident John F. Kennedy addressing the United Nations in 1961.
While the term itself may have fallen out of fashion in modern vernacular, the imagery certainly hasn’t, nor has the symbolism. Countless movies and television shows ranging from The Rocky Horror Picture Show to NCIS have invoked the name Damocles or featured some reference to the tale. Rapper and producer Kanye West even featured the image of the sword of Damocles in the music video for his song “Power.”
Whether Cicero intended the parable as a warning or not, the lasting cultural impact of the sword of Damocles cannot be understated — nor should it be ignored. While many today would consider the legend’s symbolism to represent impending doom, the story should also be heeded as a cautionary tale to those who would abuse their power and become tyrants, a threat that is itself ever looming in the modern world.
After learning about the history of the idiom “the sword of Damocles,” read all about the origins of the phrase “crossing the Rubicon.” Or, go inside the surprising meaning of “Humpty Dumpty.”
