The rise of industrialism in the decades following the Civil War brought untold wealth to the United States. But beneath the lavish lifestyles of the robber barons, millions of Americans were living in dismal conditions.
Despite the name, America’s Gilded Age was not as glamorous as it may seem — at least, not for most people.
This period, which lasted from the 1870s to the late 1890s, was a time of rapid industrialization, economic growth, and stark social contrasts. The wealthy, particularly those who owned industries, certainly became wealthier. However, those in the lower classes lived in abject poverty. They were worked to the bone as the concept of “social Darwinism” took hold — but without the wages to justify the long hours, lack of safety regulations, and mistreatment they suffered.
In fact, the term “Gilded Age” refers not to the extreme wealth that some experienced during this time but rather to the 1873 satirical novel by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today. The book’s title is likewise tongue-in-cheek, speaking of a thin layer of gold (“gilding”) covering underlying issues, symbolizing an era that glittered on the surface but was fraught with deep-seated social and political problems.
Twain and Warner’s work critiqued the overt greed and corruption prevalent during the late 19th century, but nothing drives the stark contrast between the wealthy and the poor home quite like seeing it with your own eyes.
Jacob Riis, who took the photo, wrote of the newsboys, "In winter the boys curl themselves up on the steam-pipes in the newspaper offices that open their doors at midnight on secret purpose to let them in."FAY 2018 / Alamy Stock Photo
After immigrating to the United States with his family when he was 12, he worked his way up from a factory job to become a leading figure in the steel industry, founding the Carnegie Steel Company. After selling his company to J. P. Morgan in 1901 for the equivalent of $11.5 billion today, he devoted himself to philanthropy, funding libraries, education, and peace initiatives.Public Domain
Jacob Riis noted that he "photographed that baby standing with its back against the public sink in a pool of filth that overflowed on the floor."Public Domain
Vanderbilt's investments in railroads, notably the New York Central Railroad, further solidified his status as one of the wealthiest individuals of his time. His legacy includes the founding of Vanderbilt University in Nashville.Public Domain
In his early 20s, he invented the railway air brake, enhancing train safety and efficiency. A pioneer of alternating current (AC) electrical systems, he founded the Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1886 to promote AC power distribution.
Throughout his career, he held 362 patents and established 61 companies, cementing his legacy as a key figure in America's industrial advancement. Public Domain
She famously embroidered a pillow with the phrase, "If you can't say something good about someone, sit right here by me."Everett Collection Historical / Alamy Stock Photo
In 1871, he became a partner in Frick Coke Company, a small business that turned coal into coke for steel manufacturing purposes. He later became the chairman of Carnegie Steel Company, playing a pivotal role in the formation of U.S. Steel. Frick's vehement anti-union stance led to violent conflicts, notably the 1892 Homestead Steel Strike.
His extensive art collection became the Frick Collection in New York City.Public Domain
He expanded his family's banking enterprise, investing in industries like aluminum and oil, and served as U.S. Secretary of the Treasury from 1921 to 1932 under three presidents. Mellon significantly reduced federal taxes and the national debt during the 1920s.
A passionate art collector, he founded the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., donating his extensive collection and funds for its establishment. His philanthropic legacy also includes contributions to educational institutions, notably the founding of Carnegie Mellon University.Public Domain
Beyond his oil ventures, Flagler played a pivotal role in developing Florida's Atlantic coast, establishing the Florida East Coast Railway and building luxury hotels, which significantly boosted the state's tourism industry.Alpha Historica / Alamy Stock Photo
It was initially serialized in McClure's Magazine and has been widely hailed as a masterpiece of investigative journalism. It also contributed to the U.S. Supreme Court's decision to dismantle Standard Oil in 1911. Public Domain
Despite his controversial methods, by the time of his death, he had amassed a fortune, leaving an estate valued at $72 million. Public Domain
Rockefeller Jr. also developed New York City's Rockefeller Center and contributed land for the United Nations headquarters.Public Domain
As president of the Central Pacific and Southern Pacific Railroads, he played a pivotal role in constructing the First Transcontinental Railroad. Stanford also served as the eighth governor of California and later as a U.S. senator. In 1885, he and his wife, Jane, established Stanford University in memory of their only son, Leland Stanford Jr., who died of typhoid fever at age 15. Public Domain
Jacob Riis wrote of the photo, "In a room not thirteen feet either way slept twelve men and women, two or three in bunks set in a sort of alcove, the rest on the floor... Most of the men were lodgers, who slept there for five cents a spot."Public Domain
His presidency began with the Compromise of 1877, which resolved the disputed 1876 election by withdrawing federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction. Hayes advocated for civil service reform, challenged the patronage system, and promoted equal treatment regardless of race.
During the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, he deployed federal troops to maintain order. Public Domain
Robber Barons: Titans Of Industry Or Exploitative Moguls?
The biggest names in American industry saw their rise during the Gilded Age — and many of them are still relevant today. These so-called "titans of industry" included John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, Henry Clay Frick, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and J. P. Morgan, among others.
Their innovations quite literally built modern America and made the country one of the leading industrial hubs in the world, but their business practices and treatment of their workers also raised serious ethical concerns.
These magnates often employed aggressive tactics to eliminate competition, such as forming monopolies and trusts. They also busted unions and exploited workers. Critics argued that their vast fortunes were built at the expense of both employees and consumers and were the primary cause of the staggering income inequality of the day. As such, they were awarded another name: "robber barons."
Of course, they had their supporters, too. Many people viewed these "captains of industry" as leading figures of the time who modernized the economy and even contributed to philanthropic causes. Andrew Carnegie, for example, ultimately donated over 90 percent of his money, living by what he called the "Gospel of Wealth."
GL Archive / Alamy Stock PhotoAndrew Carnegie (center) walking near New York City Hall with Philip James Stanhope, 1st Baron Weardale, a British politician and philanthropist.
"The problem of our age is the proper administration of wealth, so that the ties of brotherhood may still bind together the rich and poor in harmonious relationship," he wrote. "The conditions of human life have not only been changed, but revolutionized, within the past few hundred years... The contrast between the palace of the millionaire and the cottage of the laborer with us to-day measures the change which has come with civilization."
Carnegie, despite being a contributor to this wealth gap and treating his own employees poorly, at least acknowledged the inequality. As he neared death, however, he decided that it would be better to put his fortune to good use in a way that benefitted society.
The Lower Class Struggled During The Gilded Age's Prosperity
Glasshouse Images / Alamy Stock PhotoA "breaker boy" — a child worker whose job was to break up coal in the mines — on his lunch break in Kingston, Pennsylvania. 1890.
While rich moguls were living in lavish mansions and parading their wealth, life for the average person was much different. Rapid industrialization led to urbanization, and millions flocked to cities in search of employment — only to face grueling working conditions, long hours, and meager wages.
Workers, including women and children, toiled in factories, mines, and mills under horribly unsafe conditions. Labor unions began to form in response, advocating for better wages, reasonable working hours, and safer environments, but naturally, the industry titans sought to shut them down.
This tension led to several notable strikes, including the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 and the Pullman Strike of 1894, which often ended in violent confrontations between exasperated workers and union-busting forces like the Pinkerton National Detective Agency.
To make matters worse, urban living conditions were horrendous. Overcrowded tenement houses lacked proper sanitation, leading to the spread of disease. Despite a booming economy, wealth was concentrated among a small group of the elite, leaving the majority of the country's inhabitants to grapple with poverty.
How Muckrakers Exposed The Dark Underbelly Of The Gilded Age
The Gilded Age was clearly rife with corruption and social injustices that likely would have continued on longer than they did if not for the work of the era's investigative journalists. Dubbed "muckrakers" — because they were "raking through the muck" to find their stories — their exposés played a pivotal role in raising public awareness and spurring reforms.
One of the era's leading muckrakers was Ida B. Wells, a journalist who focused heavily on the horrors of lynching in the American South. Her stories brought national attention to the pervasive racial violence and injustice.
Another influential figure, Upton Sinclair, authored The Jungle in 1906, putting the truth about the unsanitary and inhumane conditions within the meatpacking industry on the world stage.
"Into this wild-beast tangle these men had been born without their consent, they had taken part in it because they could not help it; that they were in jail was no disgrace to them, for the game had never been fair, the dice were loaded. They were swindlers and thieves of pennies and dimes, and they had been trapped and put out of the way by the swindlers and thieves of millions of dollars."
To say his work shocked the public would be an understatement.
It also led to significant legislative reforms, including the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Federal Meat Inspection Act, which helped ensure food safety and improve labor conditions.
Other prominent muckrakers included photojournalist Jacob Riis, who documented the poor living conditions of immigrants in New York; Ida Tarbell, who focused her efforts on John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil; and Lincoln Steffens, who wrote primarily about corruption in city governments.
While their efforts alone didn't bring the Gilded Age to an end, there is no doubt that without them this period of exploitation would have only worsened. Of course, all things must come to a close, and there were several forces that joined together at this time to drag the world forward — even if the industrialists came kicking and screaming.
The End Of The Gilded Age And Transition To The Progressive Era
Public DomainThe Pullman Strike of 1894 greatly disrupted rail travel in the United States.
Something clearly wasn't working. How could the country as a whole be so wealthy on paper while the average person was struggling to get by? More importantly, how was it fair that a select few got to hoard that wealth for themselves while they exploited the very people who earned it for them in the first place?
Political corruption certainly enabled this disparity in treatment and income, but once that started to be exposed, it gave the working people somewhere to aim their ire. Labor unrest, women's suffrage campaigns, and the activism of muckrakers created the momentum needed for change, pushing for laws to protect workers, consumers, and marginalized groups.
Then, there was the Panic of 1893, an eight-month economic depression (though the impact was still felt as late as 1897) that highlighted the vulnerabilities of an unregulated economy and the consequences of the ever-widening wealth gap. Eventually, the people decided they'd had enough.
What followed was the Progressive Era, a period of significant social, political, and economic reform aimed at curbing the power of corporations, addressing social injustices, and making the government more responsive to the needs of its citizens.
After looking through colorized photos of America's Gilded Age, see our photo gallery illustrating the rise, fall, and reemergence of Pittsburgh. Then, discover our collection of 30 colorized Great Depression photos.
